Accent

A way of pronouncing words, which is influenced by where someone is from and/or which social groups they belong to.

Accuracy

The ability to read words correctly.

Alliteration

The repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words in connected text. For example: Laura the loopy lama was lost.

Alphabetic code

All languages have different visual symbols which are a kind of code to represent spoken language. The English language is an alphabetic code in which a letter or letters represent individual sounds (phonemes).

Analytic phonics

Analytic phonics is an approach to phonics instruction which involves starting with the whole word and analysing and segmenting it into its corresponding letter sounds, for example a new word such as rat, is decoded based on the letters in already-known words like run and cat.

Analogy phonics

Similar to analytic phonics, analogy phonics approaches focus on whole words and then deconstruct them. Learners are taught to use parts of words they have already learned to read and decode unfamiliar words. They apply this strategy when words share similar parts in their spellings – for example they may know the word ‘night’ and use their recognition of the ‘ight’ part of the word to read ‘flight’.

Auditory discrimination

Auditory discrimination is the ability to hear differences between two (or more) different sounds in the environment.

Auditory memory

Auditory memory involves taking in, processing, storing in our mind and then recalling the things we hear.

Authentic texts

Texts that are used in everyday life rather than those created for educational purposes (e.g., novels and children's literature, magazines, newspapers).

Automaticity

Automaticity is the process of automatically recognising words quickly and effortlessly during reading (without conscious decoding). It is developed with lots of reading practice.

Bilingualism

The use of at least two languages by an individual. Proficiency in two languages may change depending on the opportunities for the learner to hear and use them.

Blend

To combine the sounds (phonemes) represented by letters (graphemes) to pronounce or form a word, also known as sounding out e.g. m-a-t = mat.

Comprehension

Making meaning from something that is heard (oral comprehension) or from print (reading comprehension). Comprehension includes understanding what is expressed outright or implied as well as interpreting what is viewed, read, or heard by drawing on knowledge and experiences.

Choral reading

Choral reading is a strategy used to support fluency for children who may feel self-conscious or nervous about reading aloud. It involves reading aloud in unison with a whole class or group of learners.

Concepts of print

Concepts of print (also called print concepts) is the understanding that print carries meaning, that books contain letters and words and words are separated by spaces. Concepts of print include an understanding of what books are used for and how a book “works” e.g. how to turn pages, how to identify the title and the front/back covers, that English books are read from top to bottom, left to right.

Context Clues

Context clues are used by readers to support or confirm their understanding of a text. Examples of context clues include vocabulary, background knowledge, illustrations, punctuation and grammar within the text.

Common exception words

Common exception words, also known as ‘tricky’ or ‘irregular’, are words which beginning readers may find difficult to decode because they haven’t learned the letter – sound correspondences for these words yet. They usually have less frequently used letter-sound correspondences, e.g. was, of. There are also words that are difficult to sound out because they do not follow common phonic patterns e.g. eye, one, yacht.

Common words

Common or high frequency words are a specific group that make up a high percentage of the words which learners will encounter in texts, e.g., the, said, and, have.

Consonant

One of the speech sounds or letters of the alphabet that is not a vowel. Consonants are pronounced by stopping the air from flowing easily through the mouth, especially by closing the lips or touching the teeth with the tongue.

Controlled vocabulary texts

Controlled vocabulary texts initially contain a small number of words that are used repeatedly. New words are introduced gradually and are learned through memorisation.

CVC words (Consonant Vowel Consonant)

CVC words are simple 3 letter words with the pattern, consonant - vowel – consonant, e.g. pat, tin, sat, mat. These short words are often taught as children are beginning to recognise letter- sound correspondences and blend these to read words.

Decodable texts

Reading materials which are progressively sequenced to match the letter-sound correspondences that children have been taught. They are designed to prompt beginning readers to apply their decoding skills and build fluency with known letter patterns and words.

Decode

The ability to translate a word from print to speech by using your knowledge of sound–letter correspondences. It is the act of reading a new word by sounding it out.

Dialect

A form of language that is spoken within a particular region or group, with variation of words, grammar and pronunciation.

Diagnostic assessment

Diagnostic assessment can be formal or informal assessments used to determine what children can do, their next steps and any adjustments needed to the learning and teaching activities.

Dialogic reading

Dialogic reading is an interactive technique between a reader/s and an educator that is designed to improve reading comprehension. During story reading, the adult asks open-ended questions, adds information (for example, about the setting or new vocabulary) and prompts children to connect what they already know and what they are learning about the text.

Differentiation

Matching learning and teaching to meet the needs of individual learners. It builds on each child’s knowledge and skills by teaching specific strategies that will support their progress. Effective differentiation also includes personal learning opportunities that encourage learner choice.

Directionality

An aspect of concepts of print, directionality refers to the way languages when written down are read. The English language is read top to bottom and left to right.

Dolch List

A list of the 220 most frequently used words in the English language. Compiled by Edward William Dolch in 1936 (based on the children's books of the time) and published in 1948.

Echo reading

Echo reading is a strategy used to develop fluency. It involves a partnership between a more fluent reader and a child who is still learning these skills. The fluent reader models fluency as they read out loud, while the learner follows along by moving a finger under each word. The learner then has a go at reading aloud, echoing the same text back to the fluent reader.

Encode

The ability to translate speech into print (writing) using knowledge of sound–letter correspondences.

English as an Additional Language (EAL)

English as an Additional Language is a term used to describe learners with a home language that is not English who are taught through the medium of English.

Environmental sounds

The different noises that can be heard inside and outside as part of our daily lives. For example: the sounds of traffic, birdsong, water running or wind rustling through trees.

Explicit instruction

Teaching children in a systematic and sequential manner. Explicit instruction is step-by-step, and the actions of the teacher are clear, specific, direct, and related to the learning intention. It often follows the “I do. We do. You do” model. Explicit instruction provides time for lots of practice and review.

Expressive language

The language that we produce in order to communicate our thoughts, needs and ideas to others.

Fluency

Oral reading fluency is the ability to read text accurately, with sufficient speed, prosody, and expression. Fluent readers demonstrate automaticity in recognising words, allowing them to focus on comprehension and deeper understanding of the content.

Formative assessments

Formative assessment takes place on a day-to-day basis during learning and teaching, allowing educators and children to assess progress and next steps more frequently. It begins with diagnostic assessment, indicating what is already known and what gaps may exist in skills or knowledge. As the learning continues, further formative assessments indicate whether teaching plans need to be amended to reinforce or extend learning.

Fry’s List

A list of 1000 most frequently used words in the English language. Compiled by Edward Bernard Fry in the 1990’s ( based on the children’s books of the time) and published in 2000.

Genre

A recognised category of text that we read, watch or listen to. Texts can be grouped together by similar features, such as form, which would include poetry, and non-fiction, or content, which, for example, could include superhero films and funny stories.

Gradual release of responsibility (GRR)

A teaching methodology which gradually releases responsibility from the teacher to the learner as they become more confident in adopting a strategy or skill independently. This begins with the teacher modelling the strategy/skill (I do), then moves on to the teacher and learners working together (We do) and finally the learners work independently (You do).

Grapheme

A single letter or combination of letters that represent a sound (phoneme) in a syllable or word. In English, a grapheme may be one, two, three, or four letters. For example: e, ei, igh, or eigh.

Grapheme – phoneme correspondences

The relationship between graphemes (letters) and phonemes (sounds), for example the graphemes igh as in light, ie as in tie, i as in behind, y as in shy, i-e as in bike, ei as in height all represent the i sound. This can also be referred to as letter- sound correspondences.

Guided Reading

A teaching approach in which the educator works with a small group of children who have a similar range of reading knowledge and skills at a particular point in time. Children practise newly learned skills, with the educator providing prompts and feedback.

High frequency words

High frequency words, also referred to as ‘common’ words, are a specific group that make up a high percentage of the words our learners will encounter in texts. These include words such as the, said, of, have, to.

Home language(s)

The language that a person learned as a child at home (usually from their parents). Children growing up in bilingual homes can, according to this definition, have more than one mother tongue or native language.

Inference

A reader’s ability to use information from a text and draw on their background knowledge to understand things that are implied rather than explicitly stated.

Intervention

In the context of this resource, intervention is short-term focused support in specific areas with clear objectives. It can be carried out in small groups with children who have similar needs or on a one-to-one basis.

Intonation

To use changes in volume, tone and pitch to reflect meaning when reading aloud. Intonation helps us to read expressively and make the text sound interesting to the listener.

Irregular words

Irregular words, also known as ‘tricky’ or ‘common exception’, are words which beginning readers may find difficult to decode because they haven’t learned the letter – sound correspondences for these words yet. They usually have less frequently used letter-sound correspondences, e.g. was, of. There are also words that are difficult to sound out because they do not follow common phonic patterns e.g. eye, one, yacht.

Language structure

The way language is organised and shaped. This includes the pattern of sounds and symbols, the organisation of grammar, and the formation of words and sentences etc.

Letter- sound correspondences

The relationship between letters (graphemes) and sounds (phonemes), for example the graphemes igh as in light, ie as in tie, i as in behind, y as in shy, i-e as in bike, ei as in height all represent the i sound. This can also be referred to as grapheme- phoneme correspondences.

Media

Means of communication, such as books, newspapers, magazines, radio, television, films, internet and audio recordings.

Modelling

Through modelling an educator demonstrates a strategy, skill, or concept that children will be learning.

Multimodal text

A multimodal text incorporates a combination of two or more modes of communication, such as, print, spoken text, images and film.

Multisensory approaches

Multisensory approaches aim to support memory and learning of written language through the use of, and connections made between, the language seen, heard and felt while learning to read and spell.

Oral comprehension

The ability to listen to and understand information or ideas that are spoken aloud.

Oral vocabulary

Oral vocabulary refers to words that we use when speaking or recognise when listening.

Orthography

The conventional spelling and writing system of a language.

Orthographic mapping

The mental process readers use to permanently store words for immediate retrieval. Readers map the sounds (phonemes) of words they already know to the letters in a word and permanently store the sounds, letters, and meanings of these words. Orthographic mapping is required for effortless, accurate, and fluent reading. It explains how children learn to read words by sight, spell words from memory, and acquire reading vocabulary.

Pedagogical approaches

Pedagogy refers to the approaches and methods used by educators

Phoneme

The smallest parts of spoken language that combine to form words. For example: the word ship is made up of three phonemes: /sh/, /i/, and /p/.

Phonemic awareness

The ability to notice, think about and work with the individual sounds in spoken words.

Phoneme addition

Phoneme addition involves adding a new phoneme (sound), the smallest meaningful unit of spoken language, to an existing word to make a new word. For example, adding the phoneme /s/ to rope makes the word ropes.

Phoneme categorisation

Phoneme categorisation involves recognising the odd sound in a short sequence of words. For example, if we listen to the words - fox, fast and bug, bug is the odd word out as it doesn't begin with the /f/ sound (phoneme).

Phoneme deletion

Phoneme deletion involves removing a phoneme (sound) from an existing word to make a new word. For example, removing the phoneme /s/ from sat to make at.

Phoneme identification

Phoneme identification involves recognising the common sound in different words. For example, identifying that fox and fast both start with the /f/ sound (phoneme).

Phoneme isolation.

Phoneme isolation involves recognising and isolating individual sounds (phoneme) in words. For example, in the word fox, the first sound is /f/ and the last sound is /x/.

Phoneme substitution

Phoneme substitution involves changing one sound (phoneme) to another to make a new word. For example, changing /g/ to /n/ in the word bug, makes the new word bun.

Phoneme manipulation

Phoneme manipulation is an umbrella term for the skills which involve adding, deleting or substituting phonemes (sounds) to an existing word to make a new word.

For example,

• Phoneme addition – adding /s/ to bat = bats
• Phoneme deletion - removing /r/ from rat = at
• Phoneme substitution- changing /c/ to /s/ in cat = sat

Phonological awareness

Phonological awareness is the ability to hear and manipulate, or ‘play with’ the spoken sounds in words and sentences.

Phonics

An approach to teaching reading that emphasises the systematic relationship between the sounds( phonemes) of language and the graphemes (letter or letter combinations) that represent those sounds. Learners apply this knowledge to decode printed words.

Predictable text

Predictable texts use structured patterns that allow the reader to anticipate “what comes next” in the story. Repetitive lines, phrases, rhythms or connections in the words and illustrations help children to tell the story.

Print concepts

Print concepts (also called concepts of print) is the understanding that print carries meaning, that books contain letters and words and words are separated by spaces. Print concepts also include an understanding of what books are used for and how a book “works” e.g. how to turn pages, how to identify the title and the front /back covers, that English books are read from top to bottom, left to right.

Prosody

An important feature of oral reading fluency that allows the learner to read with expression. This involves changes in volume, emphasis, and rhythm, for example the rising intonation at the end of a question in English.

Qualitative data

Qualitative data is descriptive, focusing on qualities and characteristics rather than numerical values. It includes reflections and responses, collected through methods such as observations and comments recorded from children, families and educators.

Quantitative data

Data that can be counted, measured, or given a numerical value.

Repeated reading

A method of reading instruction in which the learner rereads a text aloud, building their fluency through repetition.

Rhyme

Words that rhyme have the same last sound. For example: red/bed, blue/flew.

Round robin reading

An approach in which all children in a class or group take turns to read a small section of text aloud.

Schwa

Schwa is a term used to describe the short /u/ sound (phoneme) often inadvertently added to consonants when we try to say them as an individual sound. For example, saying the individual sound /b/ with the /uh/ sound pronounced at the end will cause children difficulties when blending and segmenting. Saying sounds clearly and distinctly helps to avoid the schwa sound when teaching phonics.

Segment

Breaking or separating a word into sounds (phonemes) or smaller parts.

Shared reading

An educator sharing a text with a child or group of children, helping them to learn aspects of reading and promote reading for pleasure.

Sight words

Words that are instantly recognised and identified without conscious decoding or sounding out.

Summative assessment

Summative assessment sums up what a child has achieved at the end of a period of time, in relation to the learning aims and/ or the relevant national standards. The period of time may vary, depending on what the teacher wants to find out.

Syllable

A word or word part which contains a vowel sound, e.g. basket has two syllables: bas - ket.

Systematic instruction

Systematic instruction is a planned approach to teaching reading that takes children through an organised sequence of learning activities.

Synthetic phonics

An approach to phonics instruction that emphasises teaching the sounds (phonemes) of letters (graphemes) in isolation and how to blend (synthesise) these separate sounds in order to read words.

Tiered vocabulary

The three-tier framework (tiered vocabulary) was introduced by Isabel Beck and Margaret McKeown to help identify which words should be taught.

Tier one features high-frequency words, which are common in spoken and written language (such as, clock, tell and happy).

Tier two words are relatively common words that may be used across a range of areas, but children may need some assistance to learn them (such as, curve, melt and mountain).

Tier-three words are technical words linked to specific content learning (such as, carnivore or triceratops)

Triangulation

Triangulation is the process of using information and data including people’s views and direct observation of practice to ensure that robust evidence is used to inform learning and teaching.

Tricky words

Tricky words, also known as ‘irregular’ or ‘common exception’, are words which beginning readers may find difficult to decode because they haven’t learned the letter – sound correspondences for these words yet. They usually have less frequently used letter-sound correspondences, e.g. was, of. There are also words that are difficult to sound out because they do not follow common phonic patterns e.g. eye, one, yacht.

Visual discrimination

Visual discrimination is the ability to see differences between two (or more) things. It is an important part of reading, as letter recognition can be hindered when a child has difficulty seeing the difference between a ‘k’ and an ‘h’ or words like ‘was’ and ‘saw’.

Visual memory

Visual memory is the ability to remember visual detail.

Visualising

Visualising encourages readers to create a mental image of what they read or hear.

Vocabulary

Knowledge of the meaning and pronunciation of words. Listening vocabulary refers to the words we need to know to understand what we hear.  Speaking vocabulary refers to the words we use when we speak.  Reading vocabulary refers to the words we need to know to understand what we read. Writing vocabulary refers to the words we use in writing.

Vowel

A speech sound produced when the breath flows out through the mouth without being blocked by the teeth, tongue, or lips e.g. a, e, i, o, u.

Word Awareness

Awareness of word boundaries, understanding where one word ends and where another begins. For example: the following sentence contains three words – Today is Tuesday.

Working memory

Working memory is the system in our brains responsible for temporarily storing information and using this information in our thinking.